Recent Advances in Composite Materials for the Treatment of Critical-Size Bone Defects: A narrative review

ABBAS, K.F., TAWFIK, H., HASHEM, A.A.R., AHMED, H.M.A., ABU‐SEIDA, A.M., and REFAI, H.M., 2020. Histopathological evaluation of different regenerative protocols using Chitosan‐based formulations for management of immature non‐vital teeth with apical periodontitis: in vivo study. Australian Endodontic Journal, 46(3), pp.405-414. https://doi.org/10.1111/aej.12426

ABBASI, N., HAMLET, S., LOVE, R.M., and NGUYEN, N.T., 2020. Porous scaffolds for bone regeneration. Journal of science: advanced materials and devices, 5(1), pp.1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2020.01.007                      

ABD-ELAZIEM, W., DARWISH, M.A., HAMADA, A., and DAOUSH, W.M., 2024. Titanium-Based alloys and composites for orthopedic implants Applications: A comprehensive review. Materials & Design, p.112850.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2024.112850

ABDELAZIZ, A.G., NAGEH, H., ABDO, S.M., ABDALLA, M.S., AMER, A.A., ABDAL-HAY, A., and BARHOUM, A., 2023. A review of 3D polymeric scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: principles, fabrication techniques, immunomodulatory roles, and challenges. Bioengineering, 10(2), p.204. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering10020204

ABDOLAHINIA, E.D., AMIRYAGHOUBI, N., FATHI, M., BARAR, J., and OMIDI, Y., 2024. Recent advances in injectable nanocomposite hydrogels. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects, 39, p.101254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoso.2024.101254

ABDULHUSSAIN, R., ADEBISI, A., CONWAY, B.R., and ASARE-ADDO, K., 2023. Electrospun nanofibers: Exploring process parameters, polymer selection, and recent applications in pharmaceuticals and drug delivery. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, 90, p.105156.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2023.105156 

ABUBAKRE, O.K., MEDUPIN, R.O., AKINTUNDE, I.B., JIMOH, O.T., ABDULKAREEM, A.S., MURIANA, R.A., JAMES, J.A., UKOBA, K.O., JEN, T.C., and YORO, K.O., 2023. Carbon nanotube-reinforced polymer nanocomposites for sustainable biomedical applications: A review. Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices, 8(2), p.100557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2023.100557

AGRAWAL, S., and SRIVASTAVA, R., 2020. Osteoinductive and osteoconductive biomaterials. Racing for the Surface: Antimicrobial and Interface Tissue Engineering, pp.355-395. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34471-9_15

AI, F., CHEN, L., YAN, J., YANG, K., LI, S., DUAN, H., CAO, C., LI, W., and ZHOU, K., 2020. Hydroxyapatite scaffolds containing copper for bone tissue engineering. Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology, 95, pp.168-179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10971-020-05285-0  

ALHUSSARY, B.N., A TAQA, G., and TAQA, A.A.A., 2020. Preparation and characterization of natural nano hydroxyapatite from eggshell and seashell and its effect on bone healing. Journal of Applied Veterinary Sciences, 5(2), pp.25-32. https://dx.doi.org/10.21608/javs.2020.85567

ALONSO-FERNÁNDEZ, I., HAUGEN, H.J., LOPEZ-PEÑA, M., GONZALEZ-CANTALAPIEDRA, A., and MUÑOZ, F., 2023. Use of 3D-printed polylactic acid/bioceramic composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering in preclinical in vivo studies: A systematic review. Acta Biomaterialia, 168, pp.1-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2023.07.013

AMIRYAGHOUBI, N., FATHI, M., BARAR, J., OMIDIAN, H., and OMIDI, Y., 2022. Recent advances in graphene-based polymer composite scaffolds for bone/cartilage tissue engineering. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, 72, p.103360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103360

ATIYAH, A.G., and LM, A., 2024. Impact of Fabricated Coral Shell Hydroxyapatite Powder and Autologous Plasma Rich-fibrin in Remodeling of the Mandibular Bone Critical Size Defect in Dogs: Histopathological and Immunohistochemical Study. Journal of Applied Veterinary Sciences, 9(2), pp.111-119.https://dx.doi.org/10.21608/javs.2024.266431.1312

AYKORA, D., and UZUN, M., 2024. Bone tissue engineering for osteointegration: Where are we now? Polymer Bulletin, pp.1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-024-05153-9

BALAJI, V.R., MANIKANDAN, D., and RAMSUNDAR, A., 2020. Bone grafts in periodontics. Matrix Science Medica, 4(3), pp.57-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/MTSM.MTSM_2_19

BALU, S., ANDRA, S., JEEVANANDAM, J., and DANQUAH, M.K., 2021. Bioactive glass composites: From synthesis to application. In Green Biocomposites for Biomedical Engineering (pp. 65-96). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821553-1.00009-0

BAR, I., ZILBERMAN, Y., ZEIRA, E., GALUN, E., HONIGMAN, A., TURGEMAN, G., CLEMENS, T., Gazit, Z., and GAZIT, D., 2003. Molecular imaging of the skeleton: Quantitative real‐time bioluminescence monitoring gene expression in bone repair and development. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 18(3), pp.570-578. https://doi.org/10.1359/jbmr.2003.18.3.570

BARBIERI, D., DE BRUIJN, J.D., LUO, X., FARÈ, S., GRIJPMA, D.W., and YUAN, H., 2013. Controlling dynamic mechanical properties and degradation of composites for bone regeneration by means of filler content. Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials, 20, pp.162-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2013.01.012

BASUTKAR, A.G., and KOLEKAR, A., 2015. A review on properties and applications of ceramic matrix composites. Int J Res Sci Innov, 2(28), pp.10-13140. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.20304.53766                         

BELAID, H., NAGARAJAN, S., TEYSSIEE, C., BAROU, C., BARÉS, J., BALME, S., GARAY, H., HUON, V., CORNU, D., CAVAILLES, V., and BECHELANY, M., 2020. Development of new biocompatible 3D printed graphene oxide-based scaffolds. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 110, p.110595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.110595

BEZSTAROSTI, H., METSEMAKERS, W.J., VAN LIESHOUT, E.M.M., VOSKAMP, L.W., KORTRAM, K., MCNALLY, M.A., MARAIS, L.C., and VERHOFSTAD, M.H.J., 2021. Management of critical-sized bone defects in the treatment of fracture-related infection: a systematic review and pooled analysis. Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, 141, pp.1215-1230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00402-020-03525-0

BHONG, M., KHAN, T.K., DEVADE, K., KRISHNA, B.V., SURA, S., EFTKHAAR, H.K., THETHI, H.P., and GUPTA, N., 2023. Review of composite materials and applications. Materials Today: Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.10.026                    

BIGLARI, N., and ZARE, E.N., 2024. Conjugated polymer-based composite scaffolds for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 87, pp.277-299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.10.026

BISTOLFI, A., MASSAZZA, G., VERNÉ, E., MASSÉ, A., DELEDDA, D., FERRARIS, S., MIOLA, M., GALETTO, F., and CROVA, M., 2011. Antibiotic‐loaded cement in orthopedic surgery: a review. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2011(1), p.290851. https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/290851

BlÄSIUS, F., DElBRÜCK, H., HILDEBRAND, F., and HOFMANN, U.K., 2022. Surgical treatment of bone sarcoma. Cancers, 14(11), p.2694. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14112694

BOHNER, M., SANTONI, B.L.G., and DÖBELIN, N., 2020. β-tricalcium phosphate for bone substitution: Synthesis and properties. Acta biomaterialia, 113, pp.23-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.06.022

 C ECHAVE, M., S BURGO, L., L PEDRAZ, J., and ORIVE, G., 2017. Gelatin as biomaterial for tissue engineering. Current pharmaceutical design, 23(24), pp.3567-3584. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0929867324666170511123101

CANCIANI, E., STRATICÒ, P., VARASANO, V., DELLAVIA, C., SCIARRINI, C., PETRIZZI, L., RIMONDINI, L., and VARONI, E.M., 2023. Polylevolysine and fibronectin-loaded nano-hydroxyapatite/PGLA/dextran-based scaffolds for improving bone regeneration: a histomorphometric in animal study. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(9), p.8137. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24098137

CAO, Y., ZHANG, H., QIU, M., ZHENG, Y., SHI, X., and YANG, J., 2024. Biomimetic injectable and bilayered hydrogel scaffold based on collagen and chondroitin sulfate for the repair of osteochondral defects. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 257, p.128593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128593

CHEN, J., ASHAMES, A., BUABEID, M.A., FAHELELBOM, K.M., IJAZ, M., and MURTAZA, G., 2020. Nanocomposites drug delivery systems for the healing of bone fractures. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 585, p.119477.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119477

CHEN, Y., and Li, X., 2022. The utilization of carbon-based nanomaterials in bone tissue regeneration and engineering: Respective featured applications and future prospects. Medicine in Novel Technology and Devices, 16, p.100168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medntd.2022.100168

CHENG, L., LIN, T., KHALAF, A.T., ZHANG, Y., HE, H., YANG, L., YAN, S., ZHU, J., and SHI, Z., 2021. The preparation and application of calcium phosphate biomedical composites in filling of weight-bearing bone defects. Scientific Reports, 11(1), p.4283. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-83941-3

CHOTIYARNWONG, P., and MCCLOSKEY, E.V., 2020. Pathogenesis of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis and options for treatment. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 16(8), pp.437-447.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-020-0341-0

CONWAY, M., Xu, T., KIRKPATRICK, A., RIPP, S., SAYLER, G., and ClOSE, D., 2020. Real-time tracking of stem cell viability, proliferation, and differentiation with autonomous bioluminescence imaging. BMC biology, 18, pp.1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-020-00815-2

COOKE, M.E., RAMIREZ-GARCIALUNA, J.L., RANGEL-BERRIDI, K., PARK, H., NAZHAT, S.N., WRBER, M.H., HENDERSON, J.E., and ROSENZWEIG, D.H., 2020. 3D printed polyurethane scaffolds for the repair of bone defects. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology, 8, p.557215. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.557215

COX, G., EINHORN, T.A., TZIOUPIS, C., and GIANNOUDIS, P.V., 2010. Bone-turnover markers in fracture healing. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery British Volume, 92(3), pp.329-334. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.92B3.22787

CUNNINGHAM, B.P., BRAZINA, S., MORSHED, S., and MICLAU III, T., 2017. Fracture healing: A review of clinical, imaging and laboratory diagnostic options. Injury, 48, pp. S69-S75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2017.04.020

DACHASA, K., CHUNI AKLILU, T., GASHAW EWNETE, B., MOSISA EJETA, B., and FUFA BAKARE, F., 2024. Magnesium‐Based Biodegradable Alloy Materials for Bone Healing Application. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2024(1), p.1325004. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/1325004

 DAGL, M.T., and MORRISON, S., 2021. Segmental bone defects and the history of bone transport. Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma, 35, pp. S1-S7. https://doi.org/10.1097/bot.0000000000002124

 D'AMORA, U., GLORIA, A., and AMBROSIO, L., 2017. Composite materials for ligaments and tendons replacement. In Biomedical Composites (pp. 215-235). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100752-5.00010-X

 DANESHMANDI, L., BARAJAA, M., TAHMASBI RAD, A., SYDLIK, S.A., and LAURENCIN, C.T., 2021. Graphene‐based biomaterials for bone regenerative engineering: a comprehensive review of the field and considerations regarding biocompatibility and biodegradation. Advanced healthcare materials, 10(1), p.2001414. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.202001414

DEWEY, M.J., MILNER, D.J., WEISGERBER, D., FLANAGAN, C.L., RUBESSA, M., LOTTI, S., POLKOFF, K.M., CROTTS, S., HOLLISTER, S.J., WHEELER, M.B., and HARLET, B.A., 2021. Repair of critical-size porcine craniofacial bone defects using a collagen–polycaprolactone composite biomaterial. Biofabrication, 14(1), p.014102. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ac30d5

DHAND, C., ONG, S.T., DWIVEDI, N., DIAZ, S.M., VENUGOPAL, J.R., NAVANEETHAN, B., FAZIL, M.H., LIU, S., SEITZ, V., WINTERMANTEL, E., and BEUERMAN, R.W., 2016. Bio-inspired in situ crosslinking and mineralization of electrospun collagen scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials, 104, pp.323-338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.07.007

DI CARLO, S., DE ANGELIS, F., BRAUNER, E., ROSELLA, D., PAP, P., POMPA, G., SAPTEFRATI, L., CIMPEAN, A.M., and CIOBANU, G., 2018. Histological and immunohistochemical evaluation of mandibular bone tissue regeneration. International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology, 32, p.2058738418798249. https://doi.org/10.1177/2058738418798249

DU, C., JIN, J., LI, Y., KONG, X., WEI, K., and YAO, J., 2009. Novel silk fibroin/hydroxyapatite composite films: structure and properties. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 29(1), pp.62-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2008.05.010

DU, Z., LENG, H., GUO, L., HUANG, Y., ZHENG, T., ZHAO, Z., LIU, X., ZHANG, X., CAI, Q., and YANG, X., 2020. Calcium silicate scaffolds promoting bone regeneration via the doping of Mg2+ or Mn2+ ion. Composites Part B: Engineering, 190, p.107937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.107937

DZIAEK, M., DZIADEK, K., CHECINSKA, K., ZAGRAJCZUK, B., GOLDA-CEPA, M., BRZYCHCZY-WLOCH, M., MENASZE, E., KOPEC, A., and CHOLEWA-KOWALSKA, K., 2021. PCL and PCL/bioactive glass biomaterials as carriers for biologically active polyphenolic compounds: Comprehensive physicochemical and biological evaluation. Bioactive Materials, 6(6), pp.1811-1826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.11.025

EL-ASHRY, S.H., ABU-SEIDA, A.M., and EMARA, R.A., 2016. The influence of addition of osteogenic supplements to mineral trioxide aggregate on the gene expression level of odontoblastic markers following pulp capping in dogs. http://hrcak.srce.hr/file/247259

EL-BAHRAWY, N.R., ELGHARBAWY, H., ELMEKAWY, A., SALEM, M., and MORSY, R., 2024. Development of porous hydroxyapatite/PVA/gelatin/alginate hybrid flexible scaffolds with improved mechanical properties for bone tissue engineering. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 319, p.129332 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2024.129332   

FERBERT, T., MÜNCH, C., FINDEISEN, S., PAULY, W., MISKA, M., GROSSNER, T., TANNER, M.C., SCHMIDMAIER, G., and HELBIG, L., 2023. Effect of tricalcium phosphate on healing of non-unions: an observational study of over 400 non-unions. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, pp.395-404. https://doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S409119

FEROZ, S., and DIAS, G., 2021. Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC) crosslinked keratin/hydroxyapatite (HA) scaffold fabrication, characterization and in vitro biocompatibility assessment as a bone graft for alveolar bone regeneration. Heliyon, 7(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08294

FILIPPI, M., BORN, G., CHAABAN, M., and SCHERBERICH, A., 2020. Natural polymeric scaffolds in bone regeneration. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology, 8, p.474. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00474

FRAILE-MARTÍNEZ, O., GARCÍA-MONTERO, C., COCA, A., ÁLVAREZ-MON, M.A., MONSERRAT, J., GÓMEZ-LAHOZ, A.M., COCA, S., ÁLVAREZ-MON, M., ACERO, J., BUJAN, J., and GARCÍA-HONDUVILLA, N., 2021. Applications of polymeric composites in bone tissue engineering and jawbone regeneration. Polymers, 13(19), p.3429. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193429

FRANCIS, A. 2018. Progress in polymer-derived functional silicon-based ceramic composites for biomedical and engineering applications. Materials Research Express, 5(6), p.062003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aacd28 

GADALLAH, S.M., ABD-ELKAWI, M., MISK, T.N., and SHARSHAR, A.M., 2022. The efficacy of nano-calcium carbonate derived from coral reefs and nano-silver to induce new bone formation in critical radial bone defect in rabbits: Radiological evaluation. Journal of Current Veterinary Research, 4(2), pp.113-123. https://dx.doi.org/10.21608/jcvr.2022.267519

GARCÍA-GARETA, E., COATHUP, M.J., and BLUNN, G.W., 2015. Osteoinduction of bone grafting materials for bone repair and regeneration. Bone, 81, pp.112-121.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2015.07.007 

GENG, Y., DUAN, H., XU, L., WITMAN, N., YAN, B., YU, Z., WANG, H., TAN, Y., LIN, L., LI, D., and BAI, S., 2021. BMP-2 and VEGF-A modRNAs in collagen scaffold synergistically drive bone repair through osteogenic and angiogenic pathways. Communications Biology, 4(1), p.82. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-020-01606-9

GENTILE, P., CHIONO, V., CARMAGNOLA, I., and HATTON, P.V., 2014. An overview of poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA)-based biomaterials for bone tissue engineering. International journal of molecular sciences, 15(3), pp.3640-3659. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15033640

GHOSH, S., and WEBSTER, T.J., 2021. Metallic nanoscaffolds as osteogenic promoters: Advances, challenges and scope. Metals, 11(9), p.1356.https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091356   

GIRÓN, J., KERSTNER, E., MEDEIROS, T., OlIVEIRA, L., MACHADO, G.M., MALFATTI, C.F., and PRANKE, P. 2021. Biomaterials for bone regeneration: An orthopedic and dentistry overview. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 54, p.e11055. https://doi.org/10.1590/1414-431X2021e11055

GLORIA, A., RUSSO, T., DE SANTIS, R., and AMBROSIO, L., 2017. Composite materials for spinal implants. In Biomedical composites (pp. 139-161). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100752-5.00007-X

GOLNIYA, Z., KALANTAR, M., POURSAMAR, S.A., RAFIENIA, M., and MIRANDA, P., 2024. Fabrication and characterization of 3D-printed antibacterial bioactive glass/polycaprolactone nanocomposite scaffolds. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 32(9), pp.4159-4181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-024-03202-y

GRANÉLI, C., THORFVE, A., RUETSCHI, U., BRISBY, H., THOSEN, P., LINDAHI, A., and KARLSSON, C., 2014. Novel markers of osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation of human bone marrow stromal cells identified using a quantitative proteomics approach. Stem cell research, 12(1), pp.153-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scr.2013.09.009

GUO, L., LIANG, Z., YANG, L., DU, W., YU, T., TANG, H., LI, C., and QIU, H., 2021. The role of natural polymers in bone tissue engineering. Journal of Controlled Release, 338, pp.571-582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.08.055

GUO, X., SONG, P., LI, F., YAN, Q., BAI, Y., HE, J., CHE, Q., CAO, H., GUO, J., and SU, Z., 2023. Research progress of design drugs and composite biomaterials in bone tissue engineering. International Journal of Nanomedicine, pp.3595-3622. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S415666

HAMMAMI, I., GAVINHO, S.R., PÁDUA, A.S., SÁ-NOGUEIRA, I., SILVA, J.C., BORGES, J.P., VALENTE, M.A., and GRACA, M.P.F., 2023. Bioactive Glass Modified with Zirconium Incorporation for Dental Implant Applications: Fabrication, Structural, Electrical, and Biological Analysis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(13), p.10571.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241310571   

HE, L., YIN, J., and GAO, X., 2023. Additive manufacturing of bioactive glass and its polymer composites as bone tissue engineering scaffolds: A review. Bioengineering, 10(6), p.672.https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering10060672 

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HEIMBACH, B., TONYALI, B., ZHANG, D., and WEI, M., 2018. High performance resorbable composites for load-bearing bone fixation devices. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 81, pp.1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.01.031

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IELO, I., CALABRESE, G., DE LUCA, G., and CONOCI, S., 2022. Recent advances in hydroxyapatite-based biocomposites for bone tissue regeneration in orthopedics. International journal of molecular sciences, 23(17), p.9721. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23179721

IMTIAZ, H., RIAZ, M., ANEES, E., BASHIR, F., and HUSSAIN, T., 2025. Biodegradable Zinc-Magnesium Alloys for Bone Fixation: A Study of Their Structural Integrity, Corrosion Resistance, and Mechanical Properties. Materials Chemistry and Physics, p.130429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2025.130429

JAIN, K.G., MOHANTY, S., RAY, A.R., MALHOTRA, R., and AIRAN, B., 2015. Culture & differentiation of mesenchymal stem cell into osteoblast on degradable biomedical composite scaffold: In vitro: study. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 142(6), pp.747-758. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-5916.174568

JOSEPH, B., JOSE, C., KAVIL, S.V., KALARIKKAL, N., and THOMAS, S., 2023. Solvent‐Casting Approach for Design of Polymer Scaffolds and Their Multifunctional Applications. Functional Biomaterials: Design and Development for Biotechnology, Pharmacology, and Biomedicine, 2, pp.371-394. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527827657.ch12

KAMIL, N.İ.K. 2022. Cytotoxicity and Biocompatibility of Biobased Materials. In Biobased Materials: Recent Developments and Industrial Applications (pp. 17-34). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6024-6_2   

KAUR, M., and SINGH, K., 2019. Review on titanium and titanium based alloys as biomaterials for orthopaedic applications. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 102, pp.844-862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.04.064

KAZIMIERCZAK, P., and PRZEKORA, A., 2020. Osteoconductive and osteoinductive surface modifications of biomaterials for bone regeneration: A concise review. Coatings, 10(10), p.971. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10100971

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