The Impact of Teacher Intervention on Reaction to Aggression among Kuwaiti School Children | ||||
| المجلة العربية لعلم الاجتماع | ||||
| Article 4, Volume 11, فی سوسیوبوجیا التعلیم - Serial Number 21, January 2018, Page 149-176 PDF (574.87 K) | ||||
| Document Type: المقالة الأصلية | ||||
| DOI: 10.21608/ajsj.2018.88674 | ||||
 View on SCiNiTO | ||||
| Abstract | ||||
| Aggression in Kuwaiti schools remains a significant problem for educators. The present study examines the influence of teacher intervention on responses to classroom aggression. A sample of one hundred fifty teachers employed in twenty public schools across six governorates completed measures of teaching characteristics and responded to vignettes depicting student aggression. ANOVAs analyses were used to evaluate the process by which teachers respond to classroom aggression. The findings showed that teachers‘ response to aggressive behavior in the classroom was impacted by their prior training in classroom behavior management. Results confirmed the importance of prior training in supporting classroom management. Implications are discussed as they relate to relevant models and educational research initiatives. Future research should consider different facets of training programs (including both curriculum content and training methods) when considering the role of participation on teaching outcomes. | ||||
| Keywords | ||||
| Aggression; Elementary secondary education; Discipline; Proposed attributions; Affective reactions; Interventions | ||||
| Full Text | ||||
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The Impact of Teacher Intervention on Reaction to
Aggression among Kuwaiti School Children
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
The Impact of Teacher Intervention on Reaction to Aggression
among Kuwaiti School Children
Amer Alsaleh
Abstract
Aggression in Kuwaiti schools remains a significant problem for
educators. The present study examines the influence of teacher
intervention on responses to classroom aggression. A sample of one
hundred fifty teachers employed in twenty public schools across six
governorates completed measures of teaching characteristics and
responded to vignettes depicting student aggression. ANOVAs analyses
were used to evaluate the process by which teachers respond to classroom
aggression. The findings showed that teachers‘ response to aggressive
behavior in the classroom was impacted by their prior training in
classroom behavior management. Results confirmed the importance of
prior training in supporting classroom management. Implications are
discussed as they relate to relevant models and educational research
initiatives. Future research should consider different facets of training
programs (including both curriculum content and training methods) when
considering the role of participation on teaching outcomes.
Keywords: Aggression, Elementary secondary education, Discipline,
Proposed attributions, Affective reactions, Interventions.
Introduction
Aggressive behavior in schools remains a significant problem for both
educators and the community as a whole both in the United States and
around the world (e.g., Bauman & Del Rio, 2005). Further, specific forms
of aggression, such as peer bullying, continues to be a common problem
professor of sociology, Kuwait university
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
in many countries (Craig, Pepler, & Atlas, 2000). Bullying is only one
kind of school violence currently being researched. General violence in
Kuwaiti high schools, for example, which is seen as severe, has recently
drawn attention.
Newspapers have carried articles highlighting this violence and the types
of weapons students bring to school. Statistics published by Kuwait‘s
Ministry of Planning in 2000 gave the total Kuwaiti population as
2,228,363 and the total number of violent crimes as 14,322 (Ministry of
Planning 2001). The violent behavioral incidents registered in the record
of Social Service Offices in public schools during the 2000-2001
academic years were 15,123 single student cases, out of a total student
population of 264,408. Some students were involved in more than one
case (Ministry of Planning 2001:166). Of these cases, only 1,224 were
reported to the police. In other words, violent crimes in Kuwait are nine
times more likely to occur within the public schools‘ boundaries than in
the outside community.
Although violence has been common in Kuwait throughout its history,
researchers ask why violence happens more often within the boundaries
of public schools. In addition, there is evidence of new types of violence,
including using guns in fights and seeking immediate relatives‘ support in
fights—all of which raise questions about the levels and causes of such
violence. Clearly, there remains a need to better understand factors that
predict, and ultimately lead to successful amelioration of, aggressive
behavior problems.
Research problem
The question of this study was are the teachers with prior training would
report greater likelihood of positive and less likelihood of negative
affective reactions and interventions in response to the vignettes as
compared to teachers without such characteristics. In fact, with training,
gains are found in teachers‘ knowledge of behavior problems, application
of training content, as well as more general effectiveness in classroom
management and instructional strategies for use with problem students.
This is demonstrated across studies that test implementation of specific
interventions for classroom behavior problems (e.g., Allen & Blackston,
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
2003; Sawka, McCurdy, & Mannella, 2002; Swinson & Cording, 2002).
In other words, teachers who are trained to be more effective in meeting
both academic and non-academic student needs create a positive and
successful classroom environment for all students. For instance, it is
highly likely that teachers increase their knowledge about the aetiology,
presentation, and treatment of behavior problems as a function of
training. However, the impact of training on other factors related to
intervention decisions (e.g., affective reaction to behavior problems) is
not well understood.
Studies of Violence in Kuwait: Gender Expectations and Education
In 2000, the Ministry of Education surveyed a total of 100 male and
female high school students from each of the five school districts in
Kuwait to collect information about the amount and types of violence
occurring in the public high schools. The study indicated that 40 percent
of male students were physically or verbally abused by other male
students, while 34 percent of female students were verbally or physically
abused by other female students. The amount of violence varies,
depending upon which system of education the students are enrolled in.
The study indicated that violence in the general system of education,
in which students stay in the same classroom and take the same courses
with the same teachers for the entire academic year (two semesters) is
higher than in the credit-related system, which is relatively new (it was
established in 1979). In the credit related system, which was extended to
all school districts after the 1991 liberation of Kuwait from the Iraqi
invasion, students change classes, classrooms, and teachers each semester,
so that they are not consigned for an entire academic year to a class or
teacher they might not like or one in which they have no friends. Students
have the option to choose either system.
Although the difference between male and female school violence is
expected due to the social and traditional expectations that limit females‘
actions, the extent of the violence is a major concern, because it is
culturally supposed to be out of character for Kuwaitis, whose religion
motivates them to be peaceful and helpful to others. Gender expectations
play a significant role for both students and those in the labor force. While
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
the government stresses the importance of education regardless of gender,
most schools are segregated on the basis of gender after kindergarten.
Both Kuwaiti custom and law enforce a division of labor by gender.
Unlike other Arabic countries, women are involved in various aspects of
the labor force, although the percentage of women involved in labor
outside of the home is small. Few women are owners or managers of even
small businesses. Men and women do not have the same roles or status in
Kuwaiti society, and there is tension between traditional Kuwaiti Islamic
values and the values of the West. Many women still go veiled and wear
the traditional black, while many girls in the younger generation follow
the dictates of western fashion.
Female students are a majority at Kuwait University, and women are
prominent in the country's commercial life and in the civil service.
Women openly agitate for the relaxation of social restrictions on females,
for more rights for women, and for an increase in job opportunities. These
differences in expectations for the genders are clearly seen in the schools.
All schooling for Kuwaitis is free, and between the ages of six and
fourteen, attendance is compulsory. While the government stresses the
importance of education regardless of gender, most schools are segregated
on the basis of gender after kindergarten.
In many parts of the country, girls are still expected to prefer nurturing
others to pursuing persona accomplishments, and these different
expectations play out in the ways that children behave in school as well.
Girls‘ antagonisms are expected to be expressed in gossip and social
isolation of peers; boys still take out their aggressions in fighting and
bullying.
Literature Review
Teachers endorse serious consequences of having aggressive youth in
their classrooms. Student behavior and discipline problems (e.g., verbal
disrespect, violence) are the primary reasons cited for teacher stress and
burnout (Byrne, 1994; Friedman, 1995). Research has also shown that
teachers‘ interactions with their students are negatively affected by their
stress level, such that they use more harsh discipline and spend less time
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3122
ریان
)ی
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
engaging students in a positive manner (Bibou-Nakou, Stogiannidou, &
Kiosseoglou, 1999; Capel, 1992).
The patterns of teacher–student interactions with aggressive children were
similar to coercive parent–child relations that are frequently observed in
families of aggressive youth. Parent-child interactions are the most factors
in the social problems of children (Alvarado and Kumpfer).
Studies have produced empirical findings that indicate parental behavior can
either increase or decrease an adolescent‘s risk for violence and other social
problem behaviors (Elliot, Huizinga, and Menard, 1989; Patterson et al.,
1992). For instance, research indicate that supportive parent–child
relationships, positive discipline methods, close monitoring and supervision,
parental advocacy for their children, and parental pursuit of needed
information and support (Huizinga, Loeber, and Thornberry, 1995; Bry,
1996; Alvarado and Kumpfer, 2000).
Notably, this is quite disparate from the positive or neutral
behavior management strategies typically used to address classroom
behavior problems (Bibou-Nakou et al., 1999). Although recent
researchers have drawn connections between teachers‘ perceptions about
aggressive behavior and increases in coercive strategies (Bibou-Nakou et
al., 1999; Poulou & Norwich, 2000).
Furthermore, many schools do not have access to, or are not equipped to
provide, the types of resources and services shown in the clinical
literature to benefit aggressive youth. Kazdin (1995) also acknowledges
that, even after appropriate treatment, many youth remain outside the
normative range of functioning in home and school settings.
There also remain limitations in the long-term outcomes and the crosssituational
success
of
intervention
is
not
always
evident
(Dunn,
Lochman,
&
Colder,
1997;
Frick,
2001;
Offord
&
Bennett,
1994).
Given
continued
limitations
in the existing school-based interventions for youth with
aggressive behavior problems, numerous researchers suggest the need to
shift research focus to factors that may influence intervention outcome in
the school setting.
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6
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3122
ریانی
)
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
Teacher training Studies
Research has demonstrated support for the importance of teacher
training in the improvement of teachers‘ response to problem behavior
and in the overall classroom environment. For instance, Cunningham and
Sugawara (1988) found that teachers with no specialized training were
more likely to endorse higher costs associated with behavior problems
than were more advanced teachers. Teachers are also more accepting of,
and more likely to employ, interventions that were viewed as less
complex or better understood (Elliott, Witt, Galvin, & Peterson, 1984).
Greater facility with, and understanding of, non-academic issues would be
expected as an outcome of specialized training in these areas.
Together, these studies also show that changes in teacher behavior
as a result of training, in turn, lead to improvements in target student
behavior problems and in the overall classroom environment more
generally (Aarons, Sommerfeld, Hecht, Silovsky & Chaffin, 2009;
Dzuka & Dalbert, 2007; Angelle, 2006).
Training for teachers can take many forms and can include
specialized workshops and in-services, on-the-job mentorship and
consultation, as well as academic coursework through a college or
university. Despite the support for teacher training, this area of research
remains relatively underrepresented in the literature. Furthermore, little is
known about the process by which training relates to positive gains
observed among teachers and their classrooms.
In a study by Merrett and Wheldall (1993) teachers reported that
classroom management skills were of major importance to them
professionally and approximately one-third felt that they had not received
sufficient training in this area. Teachers also felt that additional training
could reduce stress among teachers and behavior problems among
students. Additionally, Kandakai and King (2002) found that pre-service
teachers‘ confidence in teaching violence prevention to students was
positively related to whether they had advanced certification in special
education and/or specific training in violence prevention.
In order to understand the conditions under which contextual influences
may impact affective and behavior al responses to aggressive behavior , it
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)
7
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3122
ریان
)ی
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
is helpful to consider possible processes by which certain factors impact
those responses. According to early attribution theorists (e.g., Weiner,
1982) one's psychological and behavior al response could be understood
as a function of certain attribution patterns. In particular, Weiner (1982)
has shown that specific causal explanations fall along three main
dimensions, namely locus of causality, controllability, and stability.
The relation between attributions and responses has been investigated in
normative, academic, and clinical settings (e.g., Caprara, Pastorelli, &
Weiner, 1997; Clark & Artiles, 2000; Georgiou, Christou, Stavrinides, &
Panaoura, 2002; Graham & Weiner, 1991; Lopez, 1989). For instance,
research has shown that aggression is more often judged by teachers to be
caused by internal, stable, and controllable aspects of the child, which in
turn elicits increases in negative relations and coercive strategies to
address child behavior (Bibou-Nakou et al., 1999; Poulou & Norwich,
2000). Together, these findings provide further support for the need to
understand teachers’ attributions of, and reactions to, classroom
behavior problems, given the potential impact on their own behavior
and that of others in the classroom context.
Theoretical Perspective
Weiner (2001) developed a theoretical model that specified the pathway
from which a particular situational outcome initiates the attribution
process. According to his model, the relation between a particular
outcome and one‗s response to that outcome is mediated by the
attributions formed about the outcome and the psychological reactions
that were thought to result from those attributions. For example, if an
adolescent boy has been exhibiting aggression since early childhood, his
parents may assign high stability ratings, feel sad and hopeless, and, as a
result, stop trying to make changes in his behavior.
Similarly, if these problems are viewed as under the intentional control
of the boy, his parents may react by feeling angry. This, in turn, may lead
to greater punishment and harsh discipline rather than seeking help and
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8
( ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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3122
ریانی
)
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
providing nurturance. This model has received extensive empirical
support in normative populations (e.g., Caprara, Pastorelli, & Weiner,
1997; Graham & Weiner, 1991; Weiner, 1995; Weiner, & Graham, 1999;
Yirmiya & Weiner, 1986). For instance, Graham and Weiner (1991)
presented subjects with two vignettes of someone in need of aid, while
manipulating information about the controllability of the person‗s need.
Under the condition of high controllability, participants rated the outcome
as more controllable, but also reported feeling more anger and less pity.
Under this condition, they also indicated that would be less likely to help
the target person. The current study focused on the investigation of
professional training as a possible influence on teachers’ response to
aggressive behavior problems. In this study, perceived control was
found to indirectly relate to likelihood of helping by way of changes in
affect. Across all age groups this model was significant. Similar
trends were found in the application of this model to professional
settings. Struthers, Weiner, and Allred (1998) evaluated the fit of
Weiner‘s model to predict personnel decisions for poor work
performance among workplace supervisors.
Objectives of the Study and Hypotheses
The aim of the present study was to expand upon prior research related
to aggressive behavior problems and teachers‘ classroom management
experiences in Kuwaiti public schools. The current investigation was to
examine whether teachers‘ proposed attributions, affective reactions, and
interventions for aggressive classroom behavior vary as a function of
differences in teacher training.
Hypotheses
It was hypothesized that teachers with prior training would report greater
likelihood of positive and less likelihood of negative affective reactions
and interventions in response to the vignettes as compared to teachers
without such characteristics.
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)
9
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3122
ریان
)ی
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
Method
Sample
As part of this study, the sample for the study was randomly selected
from eighty public elementary and middle schools in six governorates
were solicited for participation. The random selection insures that every
element in the population has an equal chance of being included in the
sample.
This type of sampling was used because the schools are classified into
six governorates: Alassima, AlFarwaniya, Aljahraa, Mubarak AlKabeer,
AlAhmadi and Hawalli governorates. Each governorate represents one
area of Kuwait City. Participants were treated in accordance with the
―Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct‖ (American
Psychological Association 1992).
A total of twenty schools agreed. Teachers who taught students in
grades 5–8 were recruited from these twenty schools. Of the participating
schools, 400 teachers were eligible for the project. A total of one hundred
fifty eligible teachers signed consent and participated in the project. This
sample consisted of 100 females (66.7%) and 50 males (33.3%).
Participants ranged from 22 to 60 years old (M age=42; SD=11.00).
Relatively more teachers (i.e., 75.5% of the sample) reported that they had
not received specialized training in classroom management. Of those who
had received specialized training, 11.4% received training in one or more
college classes, 8.9% participated in a workshop/in-service training, 7.1%
received a specialized certification or degree, and 1.4% received on-thejob
training.
Measures
Participants responded to a series of hypothetical vignettes of student
aggression with measurements of proposed attributions, affective
reactions, and interventions. Specifically, a teacher background
questionnaire was developed by the experimenter to ascertain background
demographic variables, including gender, grade taught by teacher, years
of teaching experience, and nature of teacher training.
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10
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3122
ریانی
)
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
For the purpose of this study, teacher training was considered as a
possible contextual factor influencing responses to classroom aggressive
behavior . Teacher training was operationalized as (a) ―training in
classroom behavior management techniques‖, or (b) ―training in teaching
techniques for children with emotional problems or emotional disabilities
(ED)‖. Four written vignettes describing a child engaging in aggressive
classroom behavior were developed by the experimenter for the current
investigation.
Descriptions of the aggression subtypes reflect items on the Teacher
Rating Scale (TRS) developed by Brown, Atkins, Osborne, and
Milnamow (1996). Following each vignette, participants completed a
questionnaire measuring their attributions and reaction to the child's
behavior . This questionnaire format combined items from measures
developed by Johnston and Leung (2001) as well as Poulou and Norwich
(2000) who evaluated parent and teacher attributional patterns in British
Columbia and Athens, Greece, respectively.
Questions about attributions were based on Johnston and Leung's work
and questions about affective and behavior al reactions were adopted from
Poulou and Norwich's questionnaire. Six possible affective reactions (i.e.,
stressed/anxious, helpless/depressed, hurt/offended, angry/resentful,
sympathy/compassion, irritated) and six possible interventions (i.e.,
punishment, threats, support, refer for counseling, explanation of school
rules, teacher education/learn more) were considered.
Teachers were asked to rate the degree to which each listed response
would apply to their own likely reaction to the child (1=very unlikely to
10=very likely). For tests of moderation, the affective reaction of
sympathy/compassion was used to reflect an empathetic emotional
response and a composite of the angry/resentful and irritated reactions
represented a negative/distress emotional response (Betancourt, Hardin, &
Manzi, 1992). Interventions were analyzed separately for all analyses
given the qualitative differences in behavior al responses.
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)
11
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3122
ریان
)ی
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
Procedure
Data were collected between September 18, 2013 and Feb15, 2014 on
site in each of these schools through administered survey that had been
translated from English to Arabic, the native language of Kuwaiti, and from
Arabic to English (Back translation) to be sure that the items translation was
completed with the assistance of a professor in the English department at
Kuwait University.To select one school in each governorate, the researcher
wrote the names of schools on pieces of papers, and then a school was
randomly selected from these governorates, giving each school an equal
chance to be included in the sample. School principals from twenty
schools in six governorates were first contacted by telephone describing
the study and asking for school participation. A follow-up phone contact
was initiated with school principals. Principals were of those schools that
agreed to participate, either phone or in-person meetings were scheduled
and held with each principal to describe the project and plan recruitment
and project administration procedures.
Teachers were first introduced to the project by the school principal
during a faculty meeting. At that time, the principal briefly discussed the
focus of the project based on the wording used in the introductory letter.
A meeting was held at each participating school with teachers in grades
5–8 and the experimenter. At this meeting, the project was described in
greater depth. This included a detailed review of study consent,
instructions, and assessments. In addition, interested teachers and school
principals were provided a detailed synopsis of study findings and
recommendations.
Reliability and Validity
In order to assess the reliability and validity of this study in local
area, the coefficient alpha was high after the pilot study indicating high
internal consistency and stability for all the scales in the present study,
and validity which measure the operational definition and the concept is
being measured interpreted within and support the theoretical
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12
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3122
ریانی
)
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
framework of Weiner (2001) model.
In the present study, the alpha reliability score for attribution
scales is .74. Affective reactions scales have a reliability alpha score of
.82. Finally, the alpha reliability for the proposed intervention is.69.
Results
ANOVAs were used in order to test the hypothesis that teacher
training had an impact on responses to aggressive classroom behavior ,
between-subjects. Teachers were asked to indicate whether they had
received specialized training to work with ED students. Although no
associations were found across attribution scales, main effects of training
were found for affective reactions. Results are presented in Table 1.
Generally, teachers with training endorsed significantly less negative
effect in response to the hypothetical vignettes as compared to those with
no training. Specifically, scores on anger, stress, helplessness, irritation,
and hurt/offended scales were all significantly lower for trained teachers
as compared to untrained teachers. Main effects of teacher training were
also found across proposed interventions (see Table 1). First, as compared
to those without ED training, participants with training believed that they
would engage in more active, positive intervention strategies within the
classroom including explanation of classroom rules and use of supportive
behavior towards the child. Alternatively, untrained teachers were more
likely to refer the child to outside personnel for services.
Table1.
ANOVAs
Training
No training
F
N
Sig.
M SD M
SD
DF
Affective reactions
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)
13
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3122
ریان
)ی
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
Training
No training
F
N
Sig.
M SD M
SD
DF
Anger
2.14 1.28 3.41
1.47 6.25
N=148
66.2
0.014
Stress
2.25 1.45 5.02
1.36 7.80
N=148
67.4
0.003
Helplessness
1.33 0.66 2.02
1.14 6.44
N=148
75.3
0.002
Irritation
3.50 1.23 5.15
1.25 4.35
N=148
66.1
0.032
Hurt/offended
1.06 .064 2.30
1.46 4.89
N=148
56.6
0.012
Proposed interventions
Punishment
6.43 2.50 6.82
2.98 2.26
N=148
78.3
0.38
Threats
4.90 1.96 5.17
1.79 1.29
N=148
74.3
0.48
Explanation of school
rules
7.22 1.89 7.98
1.76 2.85
N=148
72.1
0.20
Learn more
4.12 2.20 5.84
2.33 5.28
N=148
79.2
0.04
Support
6.34 2.69 5.24
2.14 3.42
N=148
78.8
0.05
Refer to counseling
4.24 2.55 5.62
2.63 3.25
N=148
79.3
0.03
75.5 % of the
sample
Note:
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3122
ریانی
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32
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
M: mean
SD: standard deviation Number of Sample N=148
Discussion
The goal of the present study was to evaluate and expand upon
previous research on attributions of and responses to aggressive behavior
in the schools and to better understand the impact of teacher training. The
hypothesis was tested and supported by the data. Most teachers (i.e.,
65.5%) received a bachelor's degree; 34.9% and 1.8% received
masters and doctorate degrees, respectively. Years of teaching
experience ranged from 3 to 30 (M years=16.1; SD=9.37).
The findings showed that teachers‘ response to aggressive behavior in the
classroom was impacted by their prior training in classroom behavior
management. Second, in an effort to identify processes that may help to
explain teachers‘ response to classroom aggression, ANOVAs analyses
were conducted to test the relation between teachers‘ proposed
attributions, affective reactions, and interventions. Some have argued that
characteristics of the perceiver, in addition to the target, impact the
outcome of person perception processes.
Numerous researchers have considered a wide range of specific
demographic, psychosocial, and professional characteristics that may
relate to individuals‘ perception of others‘ behavior . In considering
attribution processes specifically, the current study did not support the
significant influence of training on teachers‘ attributions of classroom
aggressions. Relatively more teachers (i.e., 75.5% of the sample)
reported that they had not received specialized training in classroom
management or for work with children having emotional problems.
Of those who had received specialized training, 11.4% received
training in one or more college classes, 8.9% participated in a
workshop/in-service training, 7.1% received a specialized
certification or degree, and 1.4% received on-the-job training.
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)
15
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3122
ریان
)ی
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
This is consistent with the work of Cunningham and Sugawara (1988)
who evaluated causal attribution patterns and suggested disciplinary
strategies for pre-service teachers. They showed that professional factors
such as training related to differences in perceived costs associated with
classroom behavior problems but not to the attributional judgment of the
behavior itself.
The current study focused on the investigation of professional training as
a possible influence on teachers‘ response to aggressive behavior
problems. Results confirmed that prior training impacted both affective
responses and behavior al reactions to the hypothetical vignettes of
classroom aggression.
The data suggests that advanced training in behavior and/or emotional
factors that impact classroom management may prove useful to general
education teachers. Consistent with prior research (e.g., Cunningham &
Sugawara, 1988), teachers in the current study were more likely to report
feelings of anger, stress, helplessness, irritation, and hurt/offence if they
had not received prior training. It is also likely that teacher training has
important effects on teachers‘ self-evaluation of competence, which in
turn may impact responses to classroom management needs. Teacher
training was also positively related to the likelihood that teachers would
propose positive, active interventions in response to classroom
aggression. This is also consistent with previous studies (e.g., Kandakai &
King, 2002; Schwartz, Wolfe, & Cassar, 1997; Soodak & Podell, 1997).
Internationally, a host of studies during the past few decades have
demonstrated relations between teachers‘ perception of their students and
the nature of interactions that take place in the classroom (e.g., Brophy &
Good, 1974; Clark & Artiles, 2000; Georgiou et al., 2002; Kos, Richdale,
& Hay, 2006; Mavropoulou & Padeliadu, 2002). Unfortunately, with few
exceptions, most studies have focused on academic achievement and
motivation rather than classroom management and non-academic
deportment issues per se. Across studies, attributional theories have only
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16
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3122
ریانی
)
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
been partially supported (e.g., Christenson, Ysseldyke, Wang, &
Algozzine (1993)). Further, Weiner (2001) acknowledges that the
attribution of intentionality is also associated with a social and moral
value judgment, which often elicits feelings of anger and a desire to hold
someone personally responsible for their behavior . It seems probable that
teachers who lack information about aggressive behavior problems and
their treatment will feel greater demands, as students are exhibiting
behavior that they likely perceive as highly deviant from their
expectations, understanding, and/or comfort-level.
According to the attributional literature, attribution of stability regarding a
target person's behavior is a key determinant in one's expectancy of
success or failure in responding to that person (Weiner, 1985). In schools,
the use of punishment often involves little effort or exchange on the part
of the teacher, given the nature of punitive discipline methods. Indeed,
Cunningham and Sugawara (1988) posit that punitive interventions serve
to create distance or limit interaction between teachers and a problem
child. Without training, a teacher may lack data about him/herself, such as
knowledge of successful techniques and/or confidence in one's skills,
which could offset the effects of stability attributions.
Furthermore, it is widely recognized that the legal system makes
intervention decisions based on the stability of behavior . Interventions
are viewed as less likely to work for stable behavior s or characteristics of
a person (e.g., psychopathy) and, as a result, parole from jail is less likely
for certain individuals deemed as having stable behavior problems
(Carroll, 1986).
Implications and Future Studies
Extensive research in school-based mental health has shown that effective
school-based interventions recognize and reinforce appropriate behavior
to promote a positive school climate (e.g., DuPaul & Eckert, 1997;
Mayer, 1993); however, many school or classroom management
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)
17
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3122
ریان
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32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
procedures continue to be reactive, punitive, or control oriented (Furlong,
Morrison, & Pavelski, 2000).
Changes in teachers‘ classroom management approaches and school
practices not only require a shift in philosophy about effective discipline
but also adequate training to successfully engage in the new strategies.
Although it may not directly relevant to a particular academic content
area, classroom management skills are critical to the process of educating
students across all content areas.
The expectations placed on teachers to manage a wide array of nonacademic
behavior
al
needs
in
the
classroom
have
important
implications
for
both
students
and
teachers.
First,
a
range
of
personal
and
professional
consequences
for teachers who interact with, and address the needs of,
problem students has been well documented (e.g., Burke & Greenglass,
1995; Greene, Beszterczey, Katzenstein, Park, & Goring, 2002). Second,
teachers‘ functioning and student–teacher interactions have notable
impact on student academic and social functioning for both the identified
student as well as his/her peers in the classroom environment (Dornbusch,
Erickson, Laird, & Wong, 2001; Schwartz et al., 1997).
Bullying, teasing, and physical violence in the classroom can seriously
disrupt student learning in many ways, such as lessening the amount of
time available to teach a particular lesson, decreasing student attention to
the teacher, and increasing student anxiety about future peer interactions.
Although recognition of the importance of teacher training to address
non-academic barriers such as classroom management is not new to the
field, this study offers findings that support continued investigation and
advancement of training methodologies and content areas. Together, these
findings highlight the importance of training which specifically focuses
on more effective ways to promote accurate understanding and
management of non-academic barriers associated with student emotional
and behavior al problems.
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18
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3122
ریانی
)
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
It also points to possible content areas within this line of training. For
instance, it is widely recognized that teachers face the moment-to-moment
responsibility of explaining students‘ past behavior and predicting
students‘ future actions (Weiner, 1985). During the past few decades,
researchers have gained interest in understanding the process underlying
teachers‘ perceptions and responses to student behavior . As Weiner
(2001) notes, judgments about a person's behavior is more commonly
done when that person's behavior does not fit with the rules or
expectations of the environment.
In a school setting, this may include exceptional academic performance,
disciplinary infractions, and/or abnormal psychosocial functioning.
Furthermore, teachers may benefit from training that builds selfawareness
about this connection between their perceptions of, and
reactions to, behavior ally challenging students. In addition, the current
study highlighted the significant emotional costs of student aggressive
behavior problems for teachers. This is consistent with previous research
across the spectrum of behavior problems, noting the added burden of
even more minor forms of behavior problems in the classroom. For
instance, teachers recognize that children with ADHD tend to require
added teaching time and classroom attention (Atkinson, Robinson, &
Shute, 1997). This, in turn, can result in a host of negative long-term
outcomes such as increased absenteeism, impaired interactions with
students and colleagues, and significant health consequences (e.g., Burke
& Greenglass, 1995).
It is possible that training in occupational stress management may help to
curb the immediate and long-term effects of classroom behavior
problems. In all, a combined training approach that addresses both student
and teacher needs may prove effective in decreasing the negative effects
of non-academic barriers, such as aggressive behavior , on student
learning. This may involve helping to further develop teacher awareness
of the characteristics and needs of students who may display aggressive
behavior as well as techniques to effectively predict and prevent such
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)
19
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3122
ریان
)ی
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
behavior . As a complement, teachers may benefit from techniques to
reduce personal bias about highly challenging students, address stress
reactions when interacting with these students, and increasing awareness
of their own strengths and limitations in the context of classroom
management.
Future work in the area of teacher education should continue to explore
strategies to enhance and improve training approaches, and in turn, the
teaching experience more generally. This finding of the study underscores
the context-dependent nature of both process and outcomes in schoolbased
intervention. Indeed, interventions to address aggressive behavior
that often avoid child-focused approaches and consider all aspects of the
child's environment have been well supported in extant literature (e.g.,
Henggeler, Schoenwald, Rowland, & Cunningham, 2002; Olweus, 1993).
As such, we may find much success by moving beyond a one-size-fits-all
approach to both the training and implementation of interventions for
non-academic barriers such as classroom aggression. By considering the
unique culture, needs and resources of students, teachers, school systems,
and the community as a whole, it may be possible to streamline the
training process.
In addition, teachers and administrators should carefully consider the
context of research on topics such as classroom aggression and teacher
training, as social norms, legal regulations, and school policies may
fluctuate by community (both within and across different countries),
resulting in varied teacher needs and resources within and outside the
classroom. For instance, although peer aggression and bullying seems to
be prevalent across the world, school districts in many countries still lack
centralized policies and protocols that can help teachers know when and
how to intervene (e.g., Kepenekci & Cinkir, 2006). Research has shown
that the training process is as important as its content in predicting
training-related benefits in behavior al health (e.g., Hoge, Huey, &
O‘Connell, 2004).
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20
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3122
ریانی
)
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
Future research should consider different facets of training programs
(including both curriculum content and training methods) when
considering the role of participation on teaching outcomes. Finally,
student aggression is a problem for a wide range of countries across the
United States, Europe, Asia, and Australia (see Craig et al., 2000).
Although this common problem may require unique intervention
approaches depending on school and community contextual factors, we
will likely continue to identify universal principles informed by
psychological theory and research that helps to guide our efforts.
Indeed, future research initiatives should focus on both independent and
collaborative work that better equips teachers, as well teacher educators,
with successful strategies to reduce student aggression and promote a
more positive and safe school climate.
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)
21
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3122
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)ی
32
( ددع
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
References
1) Aarons, G., Sommerfeld, D., Hecht, D., Silovsky, J. & Chaffin, M.
(2009). The Impact of Evidence-Based Practice Implementation and
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
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عامتجالا ملعل ةیبرعلا ةلجلما
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