EGYPTIAN DIVINITIES REPRESENTED IN THE FORM OF ROMAN EMPERORS IN MILITARY COSTUMES

[1]L. Capponi, Roman Egypt, (London, 2011), 11-12.

[1]It was important for Augustus to invent such cult in order to keep balance throughout the empire, as he started a new political phase (the imperial period), and had to keep the balance between the different interests of the people, the senatus and the army. Meanwhile, he had to maintain peace, security and rule a great empire of diverse ethnics. The best solution to deal with these matters altogether is to create this cult to be divine and honorable by the different categories of the empire, P. Zanker, translated by A. Shapiro, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, (University of Michigan, 1990), 297-298.      

[1]S. Pfeiffer, "The Imperial Cult in Egypt", in Christina Riggs (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt, (Oxford, 2012), 86.

[1]B. Longfellow, Roman Imperialism and Civic Patronage: Form, Meaning, and Ideology in Monumental Fountain Complexes, (New York, 2011), 80.

[1]G. S. Dundas, Pharaoh, Basilieus, and Imprator: The Roman Imperial Cult in Egypt, A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History, University of California, (Los Angeles: 1994), 117;  L. Capponi, Roman Egypt, 12.

[1]It was a Roman tradition to venerate the emperor in the large fortified camps where the Roman militia resided, next to the commanded pavilion was the sacred site of the camp where the insignia and images of the emperor dressed in military clothing were placed, P. Paribeni, "Divinta' Straniere in Abito militare Romano", Bulletin de la Société Archéologique d'Alexandrie 13, (1910), 182; E. Breccia, "Osiris-Apis" in Abito Militare Romano", Bulletin de la Société Archéologique 17, (1919), 185.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification in the Graeco-roman Monuments in Egypt: Study in Classical Influence, Inaugural Dissertation in Archeology / Classical Archeology to obtain the doctoral degree of the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Cologne, (Köln, 2013), 100; T. K.-O. Hekster, "Frontiers in the Roman World" in Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire, Durham, 16-19 April 2009, ( Leiden, 2011), 153.

[1]The days for imperial celebrations were known as Σεββστή, G. S. Dundas, Pharaoh, Basilieus, and Imprator, 123.

[1]W. Clarysse, "Egyptian Temples and Priests: Graeco-roman", in Alan B. Lloyd (ed.), A Companion to Ancient Egypt, vol. 1 (Oxford, 2010), 279;  Günther Hölbl, Altägypten im Romischen Reich: Der römische Pharao und seine Tempel, (Mainz am Rhein, 2000), 116; G. S. Dundas, Pharaoh, Basilieus, and Imprator, 68-69.

[1]I. Shaw and P. Nicholson, British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (London, 1995), 246.

[1]P. Ripat, "The Language of Oracular Inquiry in Roman Egypt, Phoenix 60 No.3/4, (2006), 318; J. B. Rives, Religion in the Roman Empire, (Oxford, 2007), 68.

[1]Zeus eleutherios is an aspect of the Greek god Zeus, meaning, "Zeus of Freedome", who helped the Greeks and kept them free from the Persian slavery, J. D. Mikalson, Herodotus and Religion in the Persian Wars, (North Carolin, 2003), 112.

[1]P. Ripat, "The Language of Oracular", 319.

[1]P. Parsons, City of the Sharp Nosed Fish: Greek Lives in Roman Egypt, (London, 2007), 61, L. Capponi, Roman Egypt, 12.

[1]S. Pfeiffer, "The Imperial Cult in Egypt", 86.

[1]Strategos is originally one a Ptolemaic offices of which the function were modified during the Roman period. It became a civil position assisted by a royal scribe, and was in charge of  the assessment and collection of land taxes in nomes, J. Rowlandsons and R. Bagnall (Eds.), Women and Society in Greek and roman Egypt: A Source Book, (Cambridge and New York, 1998), 13.

[1]G. S. Dundas, Pharaoh, Basilieus, and Imprator,126.

[1]S. Pfeiffer, "The Imperial Cult in Egypt", 86.

[1]G. S. Dundas, Pharaoh, Basilieus, and Imprator: 152-155, 172-173.

[1]A. Jamieson, Anisworth's Latin Dictionary: Morell's Abridgment, London, 1828, 549.

[1]Silvanus' cult was popular in the Western Empire during the first three centuries of the imperial period, P. F. Dorcey, The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion, (Leiden, London, Köln, 1992), 14. His name is derived from "silva" meaning forest; thus he was originally god of forests and, protector of cattle, guardian of family's estates, and protector of fields. He had no temples or cult priest, but  was associated with Mars, R. Schilling, "Silvanus", in Yves Bonnefoy (Ed.), translated by Gerald Honigsblum, Roman and European Mythologies, (London, 1992), 146.

[1]W. Smith (ED.), A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, (London, 1880), 961-962.

[1]Y. le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, (London and New York, 2000), 243-244.

[1]L. Török, Hellenistic and Roman Terracottas from Egypt, (Roma, 1995), 34-37.

[1]L. Török, Hellenistic and Roman Terracottas, 79.

[1]VB III, 70.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 36.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, (London, 2003),170-171; H. Frankfort, Ancient Egyptian Religion: An Interpretation, (New York, 2000), 10.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 170; W. V. Harris, Dreams and Experience in Classical Antiquity, (Cambridge, 2009) 137.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification 39-40.

[1]G. S. Dundas, Pharaoh, Basilieus, and Imprator, 63.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 39-40.

[1] S.-A. Ashton, Petrie's Ptolemaic and Roman Memphis (New York, 2017).

[1]I. Shaw and P. Nicholson, British Museum Dictionary, 246.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 171.

[1]G. S. Dundas, Pharaoh, Basilieus, and Imprator, 60-61.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses,171.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 45-46. However, the idea of having bulls represented on Roman coins is well attested in different examples. One example is a bronze coin dated from the fourth century precisely the reign of Julian (360-363 AD), represented with a bull facing towards right surmounted by two stars and accompanied by the inscription SECVRITAS REI PVB[LICAE] "the security of the State". The bull is identified as a symbol of the solar divinity Sol (Helios), due to the great devotion of Julian to this divinity, D. Woods, "Julian, Gallienus, and the Solar Bull", American Journal of Numismatics 12, (2000), 157-169, http://hdl.handle.net/10468/829 , 2001 American Numismatic Society last access on 28/1/2018.

[1]D. Woods, "Julian, Gallienus, and the Solar Bull", 157-169.

[1]S. Tougher, “Julian's Bull Coinage: Kent Revisited”,  The Classical Quarterly 54, no. 1, (2004), pp.327–30, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3556319.(accessed 28/1/2018).

[1]in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin Nr. ÄM 22396

[1]http://www.smbdigital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=direct/1/ResultLightboxView/result.t1.collection_lightbox.$TspTitleImageLink.link&sp=10&sp=Scollection&sp=SfieldValue&sp=0&sp=1&sp=3&sp=Slightbox_3x4&sp=0&sp=Sdetail&sp=0&sp=F&sp=T&sp=0 (last access on 7/2/2018)

[1]The cuirass is linked to emperors or Roman leaders of high rankings, H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification,107.

[1]Pteryges  is a decorative skirt or scalloped leather, worn around the waists hanging from the bottom of the cuirass, J. L. Sebesta and L. Bonfante (Eds.), The World of Roman Costume, (Wisconsin, 2001), 245.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 113.

[1]pilum was a heavy javelin  used by the legionary from th Republican period of Rome up to the Imperial period, formed of an iron head on a wooden shaft joined together by either a socket or a flat tang, M. C. Bishop, The Pilum: The Roman Heavy Javelin, (London, 2017), 6.

[1]E. Breccia, "Osiris-Apis", 184-185.

[1]National Archaeological Museum of Athens , inv. no. AIG. 676.

[1]F. W. F. von Bissing, "Apis Imperator", Archiv für Orientforschung 3, (1926), 119.

[1]Paludamentum is a military worn by commanders and distinguished from the sagum of the foot soldiers by its size and red or purple colour, usually draped over the upper torso and at one shoulder by a pin or fibula. As supreme commander of the Roman army, the Roman emperors were represented wearing it in their statues and on coinage, R. A. Gergel, "Costume as Geographic Indicator: Barbarians and Prisoners on cuirassed statue Breastplates", in J. L. Sebesta and L. Bonfante (Eds.), The World of Roman Costume, 191.

[1]F. W. F. von Bissing, "Apis Imperator", 120; F. W. F. von Bissing, "Agyptische Kulturbilder der Ptolemaier und Romierzeit", Der Alte Orient 34, 1-2 (1936), 17-24.

[1]adlocutio is the act of in which the generals or the emperors haranguing their troops to inspire them and improve their moral before confronting the enemy. It is a traditional motif of the emperors on imperial coinage, Jonathan Eaton, "Adlocutio", in S. E. Phang, I. Spence, D. Kelly and P. Londey (Eds.), Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: the Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia, vol.1  (2016), 678.  

[1]F. W. F. von Bissing, "Apis Imperator", 119. The statuette disappeared from later records, F. Naerebout, "Cuius region, eius religio? Rulers and Religious Change in Greco-Roman Egypt", in David Frankfurter, Johannes Hahn and Frits Naerebout (Eds.), Power, Politics, and the Cults of Isis, Proceedings of the Vth International Conference of Isis Studies, Boulogne-sur-Mer, October 13-15, 2011, (Leiden, 2014), 45.

[1]K. Galinsky, Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction, 2^nd ed., (Princeton, 1998), 155.

[1]Wb III, 122.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 203.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 200-203; H. Frankfort, Ancient Egyptian Religion, 10.

[1]Wb III, 123.n.3 and n.4.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 201.

[1]Wb III, 123.n.6.

[1]G. Hart, A Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, 3^rd Ed., (London, 2000), 88; R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 202.

[1]Serekh is the sign in which the sacred name of the king was inscribed from the Archaic period. It has the form of the façade of the royal palace, M. Rice, Who is Who in Ancient Egypt, (London and New York, 199), 230.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 201.

[1]Wb III, 123, n.9

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 201-202.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 47.

[1]British Museum (EA36062).

[1]A. de Margarie, Égypte romaine: l'autre égypte, Marseille, Musée d'Archéologie Méditerranéenne, (Marseille, 1997), n.251; http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=125570&partId=1&searchText=36062&page=1 (last accessed 7/2/2018).

[1]calceus was footwear  that covered all the foot up over the ankle, made of soft leather, and fastened in front with thongs, H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 107. Mulleus is a special type worn by the king of Rome and later by the Roman emperors, H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 107; J. L. Sebesta and L. Bonfante (Eds.), The World of Roman Costume, 242.

[1]A. de Margarie, Égypte romaine, n.251; H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 107;,http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=125570&partId=1&searchText=36062&page=1 (last accessed 7/2/2018).There are other two examples of the same type found in louver Museum, (E 7977, and E 16265), F. Naerebout, "Cuius region, eius religio?", 41.

[1]Pushkin Museum (I,1a 2794).

[1]F. Naerebout, "Cuius region, eius religio"41.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 107-109; H. beck, P. C. Bol, and M. Bückling, Ägypten, Griechenland, Rom : Abwehr und Berührung, Frank-furt: Städelsches Kunstinstitut und Städtische Galerie 111 S 547  (Tubingen, 2005), 617-618, n.197.

[1]British Museum (EA51100).

[1]http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?assetId=1129589001&objectId=155883&partId=1 (last access on 7/2/2018).

[1]sagum is a short military cloak, made of rough wool of dark color, generally worn by soldiers of the Roman army . Regarded symbolically as a garment of war by the same tradition which embraced the toga as a garment of peace, it was slightly more practical in any event, and worn on top of the armor, N. Goldman, "Reconstructing Roman Clothes", in J. L. Sebesta and L. Bonfante (Eds.), The World of Roman Costume, 231-232.

[1]Naerebout believes that this sort of statuette of gods seated on throne in legionary costume is not imagery of gods as emperors nor connected with imperial portraits, F. Naerebout, "Cuius region, eius religio?", 53.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 114.

[1]National Archaeological Museum of Athens inv. no. AIG. 675, LIMC,V,1-2, (1990) 539, pl.370,16.

[1]Cingulum is a Roman sword girdle decorated with metal fittings worn as a badge of rank by soldiers and officials, A. Jamieson, Anisworth's Latin Dictionary, 227.

[1]Wb I, 96, n.7.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 187, 189.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 187-189; H. Frankfort, Ancient Egyptian Religion, 11.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 188; J. R. March, Dictionary of Classical mythology, 2^nd ed., (Oxford, 2014),  245.

[1]C. Riggs, The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt: Arts, Identity, and Funerary Religion, (Oxford, 2005), 166-167.

[1]R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses, 189.

[1]National Archaeological Museum of Athens inv. no. AIG. 2571. LIMC,I 1, (1981), 871, no.79. LIMC,I 2,(1981) 696., no.79.

[1]Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (Inv. F. 1950/3-7).

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 110-112.

[1]P. Paribeni, "Divinta' Straniere", 177.

[1]Staatlich Museen (Nr. VÄGM 2002/120)

[1]http://www.smb-digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&module=collection&objectId=1367076&viewType=detailView (last accessed 1/4/2018). Other similar examples of Anubis are found in Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden  F1950/7-3, Copenhagen Ny Carlsberg H 1493, F. Naerebout, "Cuius region, eius religio", 44.

[1]E. von Sieglin, Expedition Ernst von Sieglin: Ausgrabungen in Alexandria, Vol.1, Die Nekropole von Kôm-esch-Schukâfa, (Leipzig, 1908), 158, n.76.

[1]Gladius is a Latin word for sword. It is short double edged with a length varying from 26-59 cm, provided with a grip made of bone, G. Webster, The Roman Imperial Army: of the First and Second Centuries A.D., 3^rd ed, University of Oklahoma Press, (Normand, 1998), 128.

[1]Allard Pierson Museum (Inv. 51100).

[1]Wb II , 491, n.5

[1]Hmhm is developed form of Atef crown in the late period used in battles or wars, R. A. Labbon, Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Nubia, (Oxford, 2004), 364.

[1]Some scholars believe that the statuette represents the god Apis, H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 112. But the two twisted horns is a strong indication that it is Khnum like Sieglin says.

[1]Juppiter Dolichenus' cult was widespread in the Roman army. He was a storm divinity standing on a bull holding a double axe and a thunderbolt wearing a Phrygian cap and sword and was originally a Syrian god acquired the form and name of Jupiter the supreme god Juppiter optimus maximus, and became a lord of major religion in the Roman empire, M. Speidel, The Religion of Juppiter Dolichenus in the Roman Army, (Leiden, 1978), 1.

[1]Seyrig believes that it is understood that the Arabs at that times were nomads who lived in an insecure world and needed to have their gods represented in the armed form for protection, H. Seyrig, "Les dieux armés et les Arabes in Syrie", Syria 47, (1970), 101-107.

[1]P. Paribeni, "Divinta' Straniere", 178-179, 180, 183.

[1]P. Parsons, City of the Sharp Nosed Fish, 61.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 48. This assumption is well indicated by the fact that during the rule of the Ptolemaic kings, no sacred animals were represented on coins, H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 48.

[1]P. Paribeni, "Divinta' Straniere", 183.

[1]E. Breccia, "Osiris-Apis", 186-187.

[1]F. W. F. von Bissing, "Apis Imperator", 119-120.

[1]E. Breccia, "Osiris-Apis", 186-187.

[1]F. Naerebout, "Cuius region, eius religio", 54.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 96, 116, 119.

[1]F. Naerebout, "Cuius region, eius religio", 61.

[1]P. Nicholson, S. Ikram, and S. Mills, "The Catcombs of Anubis at North of Saqqara", in Antiquity 89, (2014), 648.

[1]H. E. Aglan, The Aspects of Animal Sanctification, 96, 116, 119.

[1]High officers were distinguished by a corselet with extra strips on the shoulder and Cingulum militare. Below the corselet was a double pleated kilt like garment and metal greaves on the shins. From his left shoulder his fine material cloak hanged in folds, G. Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, 130.

[1]E. Manders, Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193-284, (Leiden and Boston, 2012), 105; J. Ferguson, The Religions of the Roman Empire, (New York, 1970),42. For an example, cf. the coin of Maximinus II from the fourth century in the British Museum 1995, 0605.250.

[1]A. Cotterell, A Dictionary of World Mythology, 2^nd Ed., (New York, 1997).  

[1]G. Hart, A Dictionary of Egyptian Gods, 89.

[1]A piece of linen cloth headdress gathered together at the back of the head worn only by kings and gods since at least the first dynasty and on, P. Lacovara, The World of Ancient Egypt: A Daily Life Encyclopedia, (Santa Barbra and Denver, 217), 184.

[1]There are different versions of the battles between Horus and Seth, but all show Horus as a warrior king who avenged his father and achieved victory over Seth, R. A. Armour, Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt, 3^rd Ed., (Cairo and New york, 2003), 77-85.

[1]The motive of Horus spearing wearing the double crown and spearing a hippopotamus or a crocodile as incarnation of Seth is a symbol of the triumph of Horus over Seth, A. E Weigall, A Guide of the Antiquities of Upper Egypt: from Abydos to the Sudan Frontier, (Cambridge, 2015), 344.